\n| \n Phase<\/b><\/p>\n<\/td>\n | \n Processes<\/b><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n\n\n| \n Conceptualising<\/b><\/p>\n<\/td>\n | \n Planning & constructing task representation<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| <\/td>\n | \n Reconstructing writing plans (revising & adapting)<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| \n Discourse constructing<\/b><\/p>\n<\/td>\n | \n Connecting & generating ideas<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| <\/td>\n | \n Search reading (finding information)<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| <\/td>\n | \n Careful reading (processing & understanding)<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| \n Organising<\/b><\/p>\n<\/td>\n | \n Connecting intertextual relationships between ideas<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| <\/td>\n | \n Organising ideas into a textual structure<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| \n Monitoring & revising<\/b><\/p>\n<\/td>\n | \n Low-level (language features)<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| <\/td>\n | \n High-level (coherence, cohesion)<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n Table 1: Adapted from Chan\u2019s model of writing from sources (Chan, 2018)<\/i><\/p>\n Interestingly, these processes also reflect a fundamental principle from the science of learning, the Selecting, organising, & integrating principle<\/i> (Fiorella & Mayer, 2020), by which learners respond to a prompt or task by:<\/p>\n\n- \n
Selecting<\/b> the relevant\/salient items of information<\/p>\n<\/li>\n- \n
O<\/b>rganising<\/b> them to explore & define their relationships to each other<\/p>\n<\/li>\n- \n
Integrating<\/b> these new ideas into prior knowledge, e.g. thinking of concrete examples where the principles\/ideas might apply & combining items to generate new ideas<\/p>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n Thereby generating (or \u2018constructing\u2019 if you prefer) new knowledge in the mind of the learner.<\/p>\n Phase 1: Conceptualisation \u2013 Creating the blueprint (9.1% of effort*)<\/h4>\n*Effort means time spent on these processes.<\/i><\/p>\n Conceptualisation<\/i> is the initial planning stage where you work out exactly what the assignment is asking for & how you will approach it. It\u2019s about establishing an initial, flexible direction for your work. The two most important activities in this phase are:<\/p>\n\n- \n
Understanding the task:<\/b> This involves more than a quick read through the prompt. It means carefully reading the instructions, thinking about the purpose of your writing (e.g. is it an argument or a report?), & considering what your reader, your professor or instructor, expects to see.<\/p>\n<\/li>\n- \n
Making a plan:<\/b> This is where you form an initial idea of what you need to write. Most writers don\u2019t create a detailed outline before reading, but instead use this phase to map out a general direction.<\/p>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\nThoughts from writers<\/h5>\n Notice how these writers aren\u2019t just reading the prompt, but actively defining its boundaries to guide their work:<\/p>\n \u201cit\u2019s just a report so I don\u2019t give disadvantages\u201d<\/i><\/p>\n \u201cso, this means create an argument\u201d<\/i><\/p>\n \u201cinstead of putting my recommendations towards the end, I can recommend within the text\u201d<\/i><\/p>\n This brief planning phase is an investment; a clear understanding of the task here prevents wasted time & effort later.<\/p>\n Phase 2: Discourse construction \u2013 Gathering & connecting ideas (26.4% of effort)<\/h4>\nDiscourse <\/i>c<\/i>onstruction<\/i> is the active process of gathering your raw materials. This is where you engage with the source texts, pull out important information &, most importantly, connect that information to what you already know to form new ideas. The three most critical activities here are:<\/p>\n\n- \n
Careful <\/b>r<\/b>eading:<\/b> This activity takes up the most time in this phase. It involves pausing to put things in your own words (paraphrasing), identifying the main point (extracting the gist), & reading between the lines to draw conclusions (making inferences).<\/p>\n<\/li>\n- \n
Connecting to <\/b>y<\/b>our <\/b>k<\/b>nowledge:<\/b> This is where true learning, or \u201cknowledge transformation,\u201d happens. You link what you\u2019re reading to your own experiences or previous studies, which helps you form a much deeper & more personal understanding of the topic.<\/p>\n<\/li>\n- \n
Developing <\/b>n<\/b>ew <\/b>i<\/b>deas:<\/b> Academic writing isn\u2019t about simply reporting what your sources say. It\u2019s about using those sources as a springboard to generate your own unique insights, arguments, & conclusions.<\/p>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\nThoughts from writers<\/h5>\n Here, writers connect ideas from a text to their broader life experience, showing how \u2018knowledge transformation\u2019 happens in real time:<\/p>\n [reads source text] \u201clike everything in life, if you start at a young age, for example, learning new language, there\u2019s a higher possibility that you can learn it very quick”<\/i><\/p>\n \u201coh yeah, I want to write about how like different skills acquired beforehand can also come in handy in future\u201d<\/i><\/p>\n [before reading] \u201cI know there are some restrictions to only allow some kinds of car to pass through the streets in a period of time\u201d<\/i><\/p>\n Ultimately, this phase is about being an active builder of knowledge. You are not just a passive reporter of facts, you are constructing a new understanding based on the evidence you find.<\/p>\n Phase 3: Organisation \u2013 Structuring your argument (8.7% of effort)<\/h4>\nThe Organisation<\/i> phase is where you take all the ideas you\u2019ve gathered & begin arranging them into a logical & persuasive structure. It\u2019s about creating a clear & coherent path for your reader to follow. The two main activities are:<\/p>\n\n- \n
Grouping source ideas:<\/b> This involves looking at the information you\u2019ve gathered from different texts & finding the relationships between them. For instance, you might group ideas that support each other, identify points that contradict one another, or categorise examples under a common theme (or Selecting, Organising, & Integrating<\/i>).<\/p>\n<\/li>\n- \n
Structuring your text:<\/b> This is the practical step of arranging those grouped ideas into an essay structure. The study found that writers often do this on the fly, pausing while writing a paragraph to decide what point should logically come next.<\/p>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\nThoughts from writers<\/h5>\n These writers are pausing mid-paragraph to consciously make a structural decision, demonstrating that organisation is an active, ongoing process:<\/p>\n \u201cSo, they\u2019re suggesting two tips that contradict each other.\u201d<\/i><\/p>\n \u201cLet\u2019s take some point form each text and I will combine everything.\u201d<\/i><\/p>\n \u201cNow I want to bring the point of young people changing their mind afterwards as it showed in text B.\u201d<\/i><\/p>\n Good organisation is what transforms a collection of interesting but disconnected ideas into a powerful, clear, & convincing argument.<\/p>\n Phase 4: Monitoring & revising \u2013 Polishing your work (over 45% of effort)<\/h4>\nMonitoring & <\/i>r<\/i>evising<\/i> is the continuous process of checking, evaluating, & improving your writing. The study found this was by far the most dominant phase, accounting for over 45% of all mental effort. However, this doesn\u2019t just mean fixing mistakes. A huge part of this phase, over 27% of the total writing time, was spent simply re-reading the text as it was being written or after it was drafted. The active fixing of low-level (grammar, words) & high-level (argument, structure) issues made up the rest. This shows that good writers are in constant dialogue with their own work. Revision happens at two levels:<\/p>\n\n\n\n| \n Level of revision<\/b><\/p>\n<\/td>\n | \n What it looks like<\/b><\/p>\n<\/td>\n | \n Thoughts from writers<\/b><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n\n\n| \n Low-level<\/b><\/p>\n<\/td>\n | \n Checking & fixing grammar, spelling, & word choice. The study notes that second-language (L2) writers often focus more here, a well-documented tendency among L2 writers.<\/p>\n<\/td>\n | \n \u201cmake it separate sentences, I think\u201d<\/i><\/p>\n \u201cI used already \u2018avoid\u2019. To stop? To change? Or to manage?\u201d<\/i><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n\n| \n High-level<\/b><\/p>\n<\/td>\n | \n Checking & fixing bigger picture issues like the clarity of your argument, the organisation of your paragraphs, & whether you\u2019ve fully answered the prompt.<\/p>\n<\/td>\n | \n \u201cI don\u2019t think I have explained the pass thing very clearly.\u201d [It might be confusing to some people]<\/i><\/p>\n \u201cBut I also want to include my perspectives and my knowledge\u201d<\/i><\/p>\n \u201cAnd what else did it say in text B?\u201d<\/i><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n\n\n| \n Other high-level<\/b><\/p>\n<\/td>\n | <\/td>\n | \n \u201cI\u2019m proud of that idea. That\u2019s such a good idea.\u201d [strength of argumentation]<\/i><\/p>\n \u201cagain I feel like I\u2019m repeating that counterproductive point\u201d [repetition of content]<\/i><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n The key takeaway here is that revision isn\u2019t a final step you rush through at the end. It\u2019s a constant, vital part of the writing process that happens from the very first sentence to the last. These phases provide a map of the writing process, but the journey itself is rarely a straight line.<\/p>\n It\u2019s a recursive process, not a straight line<\/h3>\nWhile we\u2019ve laid out these four phases in a logical order, it\u2019s important to understand that real-world writing is not a linear process. You don\u2019t complete Phase 1, then move to Phase 2, & so on without looking back.<\/p>\n The research confirms that writers constantly jump between phases. For example, the study found that \u201crevision while writing was far more prevalent\u201d than saving all the editing for a single stage at the end. This means it is perfectly normal to revise a sentence you just wrote (Phase 4), then jump back to re-read a source to confirm a detail (Phase 2), & then briefly rethink the overall structure of your argument (Phase 3). Writing is a recursive, looping process, & this back-and-forth movement is a natural part of creating a coherent, cohesive, polished piece of work.<\/p>\n Three key lessons for your own writing<\/h3>\nBased on what the research reveals about the writer\u2019s brain, here are three practical takeaways you can apply to your own academic work:<\/p>\n \n- \n
Embrace <\/b>c<\/b>onstant <\/b>r<\/b>evision:<\/b> Remember, the Monitoring & <\/i>r<\/i>evising<\/i> phase took up over 45% of the writers\u2019 mental effort in the study. This tells us that good writing is<\/i> rewriting. Constantly checking & improving your work, from fixing a typo to clarifying an entire argument, is not a sign of weakness, it\u2019s the primary activity of a skilled & thoughtful writer.<\/p>\n<\/li>\n- \n
Connect, <\/b>d<\/b>on\u2019t <\/b>j<\/b>ust <\/b>c<\/b>ollect:<\/b> The Discourse <\/i>c<\/i>onstruction<\/i> phase highlights that strong academic writing is about knowledge transformation. The key skill here is something researchers call conceptual integration<\/i>. The study found that university tutors see this as the \u201cmost challenging\u201d aspect of writing for students. It\u2019s the difference between being a librarian who just collects & lists facts (selecting<\/i>), & being an architect who uses those facts as building materials to construct a new, unique argument (organising<\/i> & integrating<\/i>). Actively look for ways to connect ideas from sources to your own thinking to build a true argument, not just summarise what others have said.<\/p>\n<\/li>\n- \n
Trust the <\/b>p<\/b>rocess:<\/b> The messy, looping nature of writing is not just normal, it\u2019s how experts work. The study revealed that most writers did not create a detailed macro-plan before reading the sources. Instead, they organised their ideas \u201con the fly\u201d while writing. Don\u2019t feel discouraged if your plan evolves during the writing process. Understanding that it\u2019s a professional strategy to plan, draft, & organise recursively can make the entire process feel less intimidating & more like a structured (if not always straight) path to a finished product.<\/p>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol>\nBecoming a more confident writer<\/h3>\n Academic writing is a complex cognitive skill, but it is not a mystery. By breaking it down into the four interconnected phases of Conceptualisation, Discourse <\/i>c<\/i>onstruction, Organisation, & Monitoring & <\/i>r<\/i>evising<\/i>, we can see the hidden mental work that goes into crafting a coherent, cohesive essay. By understanding what\u2019s happening in your mind as you move from a blank page to a final draft, you can become a more strategic, effective, & ultimately more confident academic writer.<\/p>\n Please note that the original paper (Reid, 2025) gives more precise & detailed information about the stages, processes, sub-processes, & more quotes of students\u2019 think-aloud processes & is well worth reading.<\/p>\n | | | | | |